The Bone Hunter

You swim in the turquoise waters of a shallow sea. The air above you is thick and heavy, the sun scorching. Winged lizard-like creatures the size of jet planes zip across the skies, then speed toward the water to snap up fish in their mighty jaws.

Beneath you is a world as wondrous and terrifying as the skies above. A creature called a gastropod moves across the sea floor, using its body like a fleshy foot. “Devil’s toenails”—a type of oyster—hide inside their shells. Spiral-shaped ammonites shoot through the water.

But these creatures, strange as they may be, are not the real monsters here. The real monsters are creatures like the fearsome Liopleurodon, with its massive body and toothy snout. It is a swimming killing machine that makes sharks look like kittens.

Yet you have no reason to be afraid. Because you are a monster too.

You are an ichthyosaur, a marine reptile that prowled the ocean millions of years ago. You’re giant, with eyes the size of tennis balls and a mouth full of mean teeth. Few creatures can match your speed—certainly not the fish and squid you feast on.

For years, you live your life in this extraordinary world. But like all living things, you eventually die.

You fall to the bottom of the sea. Years go by. Years become centuries. Centuries become millennia. The ocean cools. Sea levels fall. Your watery home becomes dry land and all that remains of you is a fossil, encased in rock. Forgotten.

Until one day a 12-year-old human on a windswept beach discovers you. Her name is Mary Anning. And together, you will change the world.

You swim in the turquoise waters of a shallow sea. The air above you is thick and heavy. The sun is scorching. Winged lizard-like creatures the size of jet planes zip across the skies, then speed toward the water. They trap fish in their mighty jaws. 

Beneath you is a world as wondrous and terrifying as the skies above. A creature called a gastropod moves across the sea floor. It uses its body like a fleshy foot. “Devil’s toenails”—a type of oyster—hide inside their shells. Spiral-shaped ammonites shoot through the water.

But these creatures, strange as they may be, are not the real monsters here. The real monsters are creatures like the fearsome Liopleurodon, with its massive body and toothy snout. It is a swimming killing machine that makes sharks look like kittens. 

Yet you have no reason to be afraid. Because you are a monster too. 

You are an ichthyosaur, a marine reptile that prowled the ocean millions of years ago. You’re giant, with eyes the size of tennis balls and a mouth full of mean teeth. Few creatures can match your speed—certainly not the fish and squid you feast on.

For years, you live your life in this extraordinary world. But like all living things, you eventually die. 

You fall to the bottom of the sea. Years go by. Years become centuries. Centuries become millennia. The ocean cools. Sea levels fall. Your watery home becomes dry land, and all that remains of you is a fossil, encased in rock. Forgotten.

Until one day a 12-year-old human on a windy beach discovers you. Her name is Mary Anning. And together, you will change the world.

Mary Anning was born in the tiny seaside town of Lyme Regis, England, in 1799. From the time she was a little girl, Mary’s greatest joy was walking with her father along the beach about a mile from their house. This stretch of beach was famous for its unusual shells and rocks. The pair would gather these “curiosities” to sell to wealthy collectors.

And then tragedy struck. When Mary was about 11, her beloved father died, leaving the family penniless. After that, Mary began combing the beach with renewed energy, to support the family and help pay off their debts.

Soon Mary would find the skeleton that would alter the course of her life.

Mary Anning was born in the tiny seaside town of Lyme Regis, England, in 1799. From the time she was a little girl, Mary’s greatest joy was walking with her father along the beach near their house. This stretch of beach was famous for its unusual shells and rocks. The pair would gather these “curiosities” to sell to wealthy collectors. 

And then tragedy struck. When Mary was about 11, her beloved father died. The family was left penniless. After that, Mary began combing the beach with renewed energy, to support the family and help pay off their debts. 

Soon Mary would find the skeleton that would change her life.

Mary’s brother spotted it first—the 4-foot-long skull embedded in the sand, its giant eye peeking out. It was Mary who found the rest.

For months, she returned to the beach, braving fierce waves and falling rocks. Locals became accustomed to the sight of her—tattered coat pulled tight, fingernails caked with dirt, hair snarled by the salty air.

Mary painstakingly chipped away at the rock surrounding the skeleton. When she finished, she had unearthed a skeleton unlike anything anyone had ever seen. Its body was that of a lizard, but it had flippers like a dolphin and a tail like a shark. It was a whopping 17 feet long, and it took several men to help Mary carry it home.

She quickly sold the skeleton, earning enough money to feed her family for months. The skeleton was put on display at a small museum in London.

Mary’s discovery seemed like a monster from a storybook. But as the world would learn, Mary’s creature came from a place even more fantastic.

The animal was an ichthyosaur, meaning “fish lizard” in Greek. It lived about 200 million years ago, at the time when dinosaurs roamed Earth. Mary’s was the first correctly identified and complete ichthyosaur specimen ever found.

Mary’s brother spotted it first—the 4-foot-long skull embedded in the sand, its giant eye peeking out. It was Mary who found the rest. 

For months, she returned to the beach. She braved fierce waves and falling rocks. Locals became used to the sight of her—tattered coat pulled tight, fingernails caked with dirt, hair snarled by the salty sea air. 

Mary carefully chipped away at the rock surrounding the skeleton. When she finished, she had unearthed a skeleton unlike anything anyone had ever seen before. Its body was similar to a lizard’s, but it had flippers like a dolphin and a tail like a shark. It was 17 feet long, and it took several men to help Mary carry it back home. 

She quickly sold the skeleton. This earned her enough money to feed her family for months. The skeleton was put on display at a small museum in London. 

Mary’s discovery seemed like a monster from a storybook. But as the world would learn, Mary’s creature came from a place even more fantastic. 

The animal was an ichthyosaur, which means “fish lizard” in Greek. It lived about 200 million years ago, when dinosaurs roamed Earth. Mary’s was the first correctly identified and complete ichthyosaur specimen ever found. 

Imagine what it was like to see such a skeleton in 1811, when not a person on Earth had heard of—or even imagined—dinosaurs. Today, scientists have given us a dazzling picture of what Earth was probably like 200 million years ago, long before the first humans appeared. We can almost feel the steamy air and hear the lapping waves of the vast shallow oceans. We can picture the giant dinosaurs that strode across the land—the ferocious Allosaurus with its monstrous jaws; the towering Brachiosaurus, its head seeming to skim the clouds; the lightning-fast Dilophosaurus.

But when Mary unearthed her skeleton, this world was completely unknown. Earth was generally believed to be only about 6,000 years old. (It’s now estimated to be about 4.5 billion years old.) Few accepted the idea that an animal could become extinct. The word dinosaur did not even exist.

Of course, there had been impressive fossil finds before the 1800s: mysterious bones jumbled together in dry riverbeds, gruesome skeletons grinning out from cliffsides, strange footprints embedded in rocks.

How did people explain such discoveries?

It’s likely that many of the monsters and giants in ancient myths were in fact inspired by fossil discoveries. If you look closely at a 3,000-year-old drawing of the mythical griffin—a half eagle, half lion that the ancient Greeks believed guarded gold mines—you would see that its body structure is strikingly similar to that of a Protoceratops. It’s possible that gold miners in Asia’s Gobi Desert discovered Protoceratops skeletons, which are plentiful in that region.

Is it surprising that people may have imagined these skeletons, with their giant-beaked skulls and long, spiny tails, belonged to monsters? And would they have been so wrong?

Imagine what it was like to see such a skeleton in 1811. At the time, not a person on Earth had heard of—or even imagined—dinosaurs. Today, scientists have given us a dazzling picture of what Earth was probably like 200 million years ago, long before the first humans appeared. We can almost feel the steamy air and hear the lapping waves of the vast, shallow oceans. We can picture the giant dinosaurs that walked across the land. There was the ferocious Allosaurus, with its monstrous jaws; the towering Brachiosaurus, its head seeming to touch the clouds; the lightning-fast Dilophosaurus.

But this world was completely unknown when Mary discovered her skeleton. It was generally believed that Earth was only about 6,000 years old. (It’s now estimated to be about 4.5 billion years old.) Few accepted the idea that an animal could become extinct. The word dinosaur did not even exist. 

Of course, there had been impressive fossil finds before the 1800s—mysterious bones piled together in dry riverbeds, scary skeletons grinning out from cliffsides, strange footprints in rocks. 

How did people explain such discoveries? 

It’s likely that many of the monsters and giants in ancient myths were in fact inspired by fossil discoveries. Consider the mythical griffin—a half eagle, half lion that the ancient Greeks believed guarded gold mines. Its body structure is strikingly similar to that of a Protoceratops. It’s possible that gold miners in Asia’s Gobi Desert discovered Protoceratops skeletons, which are plentiful in that region. 

Is it surprising that people may have imagined these skeletons, with their giant-beaked skulls and long, spiny tails, belonged to monsters? And would they have been so wrong?

By the 19th century, many believed that fossils were the remains of animals that still existed but were tucked away in the far-off corners of the world. In 1799, workers on a farm in New York discovered the bones of an enormous animal. The skeleton attracted hordes of people when it was displayed in a Philadelphia museum.

But what was it? An unknown species of carnivorous elephant, perhaps? Surely this animal must be lurking somewhere in America. The question was where. 

A few years later, President Thomas Jefferson enlisted Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to lead a team of explorers into the American West, which was then largely wilderness. Lewis and Clark brought back specimens of many birds, reptiles, and mammals. But much to Jefferson’s disappointment, they brought no giant elephants.

So what was the skeleton that was found in New York? It was a mastodon, an elephant-like mammal that became extinct about 10,000 years ago.

By the 19th century, many believed that fossils were the remains of animals that still existed but were tucked away in the far-off corners of the world. In 1799, workers on a farm in New York discovered the bones of a large animal. The skeleton attracted crowds of people when it was displayed in a Philadelphia museum. 

But what was it? An unknown species of carnivorous elephant, perhaps? Surely this animal must be lurking somewhere in America. The question was where.

 A few years later, President Thomas Jefferson enlisted Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to lead a team of explorers into the American West. Back then, the area was largely wilderness. Lewis and Clark brought back specimens of many birds, reptiles, and mammals. But much to Jefferson’s disappointment, they brought no giant elephants. 

So what was the skeleton that was found in New York? It was a mastodon, an elephant-like mammal. Mastodons became extinct about 10,000 years ago.

It was only a few years after Lewis and Clark returned that Mary unearthed her ichthyosaur. It would prove to be one of the most important fossils ever discovered.

At the time, new ideas were already simmering—that Earth was far older than previously thought, that many fossils were remnants of long-extinct animals. Many scientists saw Mary’s fossil—which, unlike the mastodon skeleton, did not resemble any creature living on Earth—as proof that animals could become extinct.

Mary’s discovery helped ignite an entirely new field of science called paleontology, dedicated to studying fossils. Our understanding of Earth’s history was about to change completely.

It was only a few years after Lewis and Clark returned that Mary found her ichthyosaur. It would prove to be one of the most important fossils ever discovered.

At the time, new ideas were already simmering—that Earth was far older than previously thought, that many fossils were remnants of long-extinct animals. Unlike the mastodon skeleton, Mary’s skeleton clearly did not look like any creature on Earth. Many scientists saw this as proof that animals could become extinct. 

Mary’s discovery helped create a new field of science called paleontology, dedicated to studying fossils. Our understanding of Earth’s history was about to change completely.

After her ichthyosaur find, Mary continued to hone her fossil-hunting skills. She could carefully excavate a fossil, transport it, preserve it, study it. She filled endless notebooks with drawings and observations.

“Mary set out what the science would be in the future by setting out the process of analysis, that scientific method,” says Dr. Anjana Khatwa, an earth scientist and author who studies the region in England where Mary lived and worked.

In the coming decades, Mary made other important fossil discoveries. She found a flying reptile called a Dimorphodon. She was the first to find the complete skeleton of a Plesiosaurus, a long-necked marine reptile that swam alongside ichthyosaurs. (Rumors swirled that the skeleton was a fake; people simply could not believe that such a strange-looking creature could be real.) She also pioneered the study of coprolites: fossilized poop.

So why isn’t Mary Anning as famous as Thomas Edison or Albert Einstein or other important scientists from history?

The reason is simple: Mary was a woman. At the time, women were barred from universities and most professions. European and American scientists in Mary’s day were almost exclusively wealthy men, often from prominent families.

Many of these scientists met Mary and marveled over her knowledge and unique talents for finding and identifying important specimens. They traveled to Lyme Regis to comb the beach with her, to hear her opinions, and to discuss new ideas.

But they never invited her to join their scientific organizations or write articles for their journals. Instead, they studied her work and wrote their own papers, sharing them at places like the prestigious Geological Society of London. As a woman, Mary was not allowed inside.

Some scientists even took credit for her discoveries. Mary resented this bitterly, but she remained proud and passionate about her work until she died, at the age of 47.

“What Mary did was quite extraordinary,” says Dr. Khatwa. “She was able to command attention based on her expertise, her passion, and her brilliance in science. She opened the doors for all of us.”

After her ichthyosaur find, Mary continued to hone her fossil-hunting skills. She could carefully excavate a fossil, transport it, preserve it, study it. She filled endless notebooks with drawings and observations. 

“Mary set out what the science would be in the future by setting out the process of analysis, that scientific method,” says Dr. Anjana Khatwa, an earth scientist and author who studies the region in England where Mary lived and worked. 

In the coming decades, Mary made other important fossil discoveries. She found a flying reptile called a Dimorphodon. She was the first to find the complete skeleton of a long-necked marine reptile called a Plesiosaurus. (Rumors swirled that the skeleton was a fake; people simply could not believe that such a strange-looking creature could be real.) She also pioneered the study of coprolites: fossilized poop.

So why isn’t Mary Anning as famous as Thomas Edison or Albert Einstein or other important scientists from history?

The reason is simple: Mary was a woman. At the time, women were barred from universities and most professions. European and American scientists in Mary’s day were almost all wealthy men, often from prominent families. 

Many of these scientists met Mary. They marveled over her knowledge and unique talents for finding and identifying important specimens. They traveled to Lyme Regis to search the beach with her, to hear her opinions, and to discuss new ideas.

But they never invited her to join their scientific organizations or write articles for their journals. Instead, they studied her work and wrote their own papers, sharing them at places like the prestigious Geological Society of London. Mary was not allowed inside because she was a woman. 

Some scientists even took credit for her discoveries. Mary resented this bitterly, but she remained proud and passionate about her work until she died, at the age of 47. 

“What Mary did was quite extraordinary,” says Dr. Khatwa. “She was able to command attention based on her expertise, her passion, and her brilliance in science. She opened the doors for all of us.”

Over the years, new discoveries have added to our understanding of the prehistoric world. Today, scientists study fossils with 21st-century technology and are learning more about what prehistoric creatures looked like, how they behaved, and why they disappeared. Most likely it was years of climate changes, volcanic eruptions, and, finally, a massive asteroid strike that caused dinosaurs to die out 66 million years ago.

Still, scientists say that we have seen no more than a glimpse of this ancient past. Each new discovery—a trove of fossilized eggs, a speck of fossilized skin, the skull of a giant predator—creates a more vivid picture of the world Mary helped open for us. These discoveries also offer clues that can help us understand our world and, especially, our environment—the web that connects all of Earth’s creatures.

So just think. Perhaps at this very moment, there is a kid walking on a beach somewhere, about to make a discovery that will change our ideas yet again.

Over the years, new discoveries have added to our understanding of the prehistoric world. Today, scientists study fossils with modern technology. They are learning more about what prehistoric creatures looked like, how they behaved, and why they disappeared. Most likely it was years of climate changes, volcanic eruptions, and, finally, a massive asteroid strike that caused dinosaurs to die out 66 million years ago. 

Still, scientists say that we have seen no more than a glimpse of this ancient past. Each new discovery—a trove of fossilized eggs, a speck of fossilized skin, the skull of a giant predator—creates a more vivid picture of the world Mary helped open for us. These discoveries also offer clues that can help us understand our world and, especially, our environment—the web that connects all of Earth’s creatures.

So just think. Perhaps at this very moment, there is a kid walking on a beach somewhere, about to make a discovery that will change our ideas yet again.

^{This article was originally published in the March 2022 issue.}